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Electricity is discharged directly into the CO2, resulting in its ionization and establishing a meta-stable state that decays, resulting in fluorescence (photon generation) and heat These photons are reflected back through the laser cavity to stimulate the production of additional photons further As this process continues, the beam intensifies and emissions from the cavity compose the working laser beam The introduction of N2 helps in the transfer of energy to excite the CO2 molecules into their meta-stable stateThe helium, with its high thermal conductivity, helps to transfer some of this thermal energy to the laser s cooled cavity walls Were the cavity gases to become too hot, the CO2 would dissociate and would be less effective as a lasing medium CO2 lasers are known for their reliability and stability in manufacturing Their emission is well into the IR spectrum at 106 m (10,600 nm).

It has limited use in PWB soldering since that wavelength is well absorbed by most organic materials (such as epoxy laminates) and is well reflected by most metallurgies This is disadvantageous, since to get sufficient energy into a lead-pad combination, the CO2 beam has to be kept to a small size to prevent it from spilling onto the PWB laminate If the PWB were irradiated either directly or by errant reflection off a specular surface, it would char and the resultant carbon-rich residues might be electrically conductive enough to cause an electrical short circuit There are three other points that detract from the use of the CO2 laser as the preferred tool for circuit board soldering, each of which is discussed in the following subsections Despite these drawbacks, the use of CO2 lasers for soldering has been widely reported in the literature 477151 Materials Compatibility.

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The long wavelength of the CO2 laser is readily absorbed by organic materials (eg, glass-epoxy laminate, polyimide, and molded encapsulants) 477152 Fiber-Optic Delivery The CO2 laser s output is not compatible with fiberoptic delivery The wavelength is well absorbed by the most common fiber-optic material, fused silica..

PB3(15)

Microelectro-mechanical Systems (MEMS)

47.7.1.6 Nd:YAG Lasers. The neodymium drifted yttrium-aluminum-garnet (Nd:YAG) laser, commonly referred to as the YAG laser, has a solid-state medium. It relies on lamp excitation of a cut and polished yttrium-aluminum-garnet crystal that has been doped with neodymium to stimulate this solid-state lasing medium. The photons released by the solidstate lasing medium are used to stimulate more lasing medium-derived photons. Otherwise, the same lasing principles apply to the operation of that laser as to the gaseous CO2 laser. Nonlinear optical materials can be used with the YAG laser to double the output frequency, halving the operating wavelength. This can be advantageous when working with highly reflective materials such as gold and copper, which are more optically absorptive at lower wavelengths. This, however, detracts from laser performance by decreasing available operating power, adding complexity to the system as well as increasing maintenance requirements. 47.7.1.7 Spot Size. First, the minimum practical spot size is relatively large. The theoretical diffraction-limited spot size of a focused beam is directly proportional to the beam wavelength and lens diameter, as described in Eq. 47.1. S = fl/D where S= f= = D= diffraction limited spot size focal length of the lens wavelength of the laser lens diameter (47.1)

Thus, for a lens of 25 mm diameter and 100 mm focal length, in conjunction with CO2 or YAG lasers, the spot sizes shown in Table 47.3 are theoretically possible.

TABLE 47.3 Theoretical Spot Size versus Laser Type Emission frequency (mm) 10.6 1.06 0.532 Theoretical spot size (mm) 42 4.2 2.1

Laser type Co2 Nd:YAG Nd:YAG (Frequency doubled)

Imperfections in the lens or beam shape and other factors prevent practical achievement of these minimal spot sizes. Generally, the attainable focused beam diameter on the factory floor is about two to three times larger than the ideally calculated spot size. Note that for an Nd:YAG laser, the spot size is at least 10 times smaller than that of the CO2 laser, providing a fine, high-energy-density spot for soldering. 47.7.1.8 Lasing Operating Modes. Both YAG and CO2 lasers can be operated in a variety of modes, each of which can be used to advantage in soldering:

2 1 E 2 a2 a f = = 3 vsound 2 4 2 3 l 2 l It can be concluded that MacDonald s resonant frequency scaling law is

Continuous wave (CW) operation CW is a constant emission analogous to the continuous output of a light bulb that is powered by a direct current source. Pulsed laser output Furthering the light bulb analogy, this mode is akin to a bulb operated by an alternating current or pulsating power supply, although more like a strobe with intense bursts. The pulsing can be attained through a variety of methods, including switched power supply, capacitive discharge, or mechanical shutter, or by means of an optically manipulated shutter, as by acoustooptic, electrooptic, or magnetooptic methods.

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